Human Variation and Race

1.      Select only ONE of the following environmental stresses: (a) heat, (b) high levels of solar radiation, (c) cold, or (d) high altitude. Discuss specifically how this environmental stress negatively impacts the survival of humans by disturbing homeostasis.

The environmental stress I pick is heat. Heat can negatively impact the survival of humans in many ways. If it is too hot, our bodies sweat it out. If we sweat too much, our bodies can become dehydrated, which can have dire consequences. The heat goes as far as to hurt our crops by drying up the land, and can even evaporate bodies of water.

2.      Identify 4 ways in which humans have adapted to this stress, choosing one specific adaptation from each of the different types of adaptations listed above (short term, facultative, developmental and cultural). Include images of the adaptations.

A short-term adaptation to the environmental stress of heat is perspiration. Humans utilize thermoregulation through perspiration. The evaporation of sweat from the skin surface has a cooling effect.
              A facultative adaptation toward the environmental stress of heat would be fainting. Sometimes our bodies faint, turning off genes to alter a phenotypic expression in response to heat. This can allow our bodies to retain what little energy it has to keep surviving. This can take some time to return to the original state, before fainting.
              A developmental adaptation to the environmental stress of heat would be less body hair. Over generations, people who live consistently in a hot environment would have much less need for hair, which helps in cold environments with insulation. So much so that not being hairy would be beneficial to maintain homeostasis.

Some cultural adaptations toward the environmental stress of heat would be clothing, as well as availability of water. To adapt to the heat, some people may wear less clothing, such as a bikini, or just shorts. Also, water can be used to quench thirst, and is always accommodated in hot areas where people exist.

3.      What are the benefits of studying human variation from this perspective across environmental clines? Can information from explorations like this be useful to help us in any way? Offer one example of how this information can be used in a productive way.

It would definitely be very beneficial to study human variation from this perspective across environmental clines. The information from this kind of exploration can help us in many ways. For example, if there is a special kind of Air Conditioning system used in Japan, which not only keeps your entire house cold for cheaper, but also saves energy and does not excrete pollution. It would be very beneficial for anyone to consider the best way to deal with heat, while having the least negative impact on the environment.

4.      How would you use race to understand the variation of the adaptations you listed in #2? Explain why the study of environmental influences on adaptations is a better way to understand human variation than by the use of race.  

One way that race can be used to understand the variation of adaptations listed earlier, is by comparing cultures closely related to the equator, and cultures located at the southern and northern poles. This would help us understand the development of adaptations of humans towards the environmental stress of heat. However, the study of environmental adaptations would be a better way to understand human variation, than the use of race. One primary reason for this is because of global transportation. There are many different races that exist in every culture. Because of this, it is not always race that would show a trend toward certain environmental adaptations. The study of environmental influences on adaptations would give more accurate results.

Language Blog

Pt 1

I found the experiment to be pretty difficult. Even though I am pretty good at charades, there was a lot of awkward silence because I had to spend time contemplating exactly how I would get my point across without the use of spoken words. My girlfriend did alter the way she communicated, but only slightly. She is very in tune with eyes, emotion, tone, and body language, so it wasn’t that hard for her to understand by listening to my body language and physical symbolism. I found it very hard to convey complex ideas, however it was easy to convey simple messages. This was because my physical body language and gestures could communicate general concepts, however, it was very hard to paint a complex image. And even when I was able to do such, the meaning that was understood was misinterpreted.
I definitely believe those that use symbolic language have much more of an advantage when communicating complex ideas. I do believe that language is a product of evolution, and gives us a means of better communication. The speaking culture would most likely believe that the culture that does not use symbolic language is either primitive or barbaric, or even immature. Individuals in our society that have trouble with spoken language are either infants, or those that are disabled or handicapped in some way. Those who speak with those type of individuals typically speak “down” to them, slow things down, speak on simpler terms. In one way or another, they are discriminated against for being lesser.

Pt 2

I was able to last the full 15 minutes, but only after 5 restarts. I never realized how much I use my body to communicate. It was only natural for me to use my arms, and gestures to convey my messages. It was basically involuntary. I had to kind of detatch myself from the conversation to be able to use only spoken language. It felt disconnected and monotone, and I was unable to really get involved in the conversation, when I forced myself to only use speech to communicate. My partner was able to understand, but I did notice that she was getting more easily distracted by other things, such as the television in the background, or the conversation going on in the other room. It is interesting to think that when people communicate without spoken word, they have to be much more involved to understand each other. When we use just words to communicate, sometimes we tune out. Although the description is more specific and accurate, it seems that sometimes messages are still not completely understood. Using both body language and symbolic language seems to a very ideal means of communication. By using words to describe, and body language to connect, we can communicate on more than one level, and thus paint a more vibrant, relatable picture.
There are definitely people who have difficulty reading body language. And communication is a little harder for them. An example would be, if a manager asks an employee if they are willing to do overtime. Even if the employee really does not want to do overtime work, they may say yes because of the pressures they feel economically, or socially. A good manager would notice the body language, and not force overtime on an unwilling employee, even though they said the word “yes”.
An example of an environment where it may be beneficial to not read body language would be any deceptive circumstances. For example, rival teammates in sports may use body language to intimidate or deceive opponents. Perhaps also sales people, such as car salesmen, or timeshare salesmen, neglect the body language of their customers, and continually go in for the sale, or the kill.

Piltdown Hoax

1. Begin by giving a brief synopsis of the Piltdown hoax, including when and where it was found, by whom, and varying affects this had on the scientific community. Also include how the hoax was discovered and the varying responses it received from the scientist(s) involved and in the related fields of human evolution. (5 pts)

The fossils of the Piltdown man were discovered in a village in East Sussex, named Piltdown. An amateur archeologist Charles Dawson and his group of workers and 2 archeologist, claimed to found a piece of an ancient human skull in 1912. Throughout history, significant human fossils were never uncovered in England, until the trio came across what they thought to be the missing link between apes and humans, known as the pilt down man. Not long after, there were fossils found in Asia and Africa that caused scientists to question the validity of the Piltdown man.  In roughly 1949 scientist discovered a new method of dating or finding out how old fossils are by measuring the fluorine content. After that, the Piltdown Hoax was unraveled.  The teeth were even filed down in order to resemble human-like structure. The jaw bone dated back less than a hundred years and it was a female Orangutan. Now known to forger hundreds of other archeological discoveries; as far as motive and evidence it was Martin Hinton.  This was an amazing discovery and it amazes me how Martin Hinton got away from it for so long; it took over seventy years of evolution to find out the Piltdown man was a Hoax.  Due to this discovery scientist were appalled and were destined to not let this hoax, or anything even vaguely smelling of a hoax, happen again. It has caused scientists to be much more detailed and specific in their findings. When in doubt, keep doubting until something can be proven true.

2. Scientists are curious, creative and persistent by nature, but being human, they also have faults. What human faults come into play here in this scenario and how did these faults negatively impact the scientific process? (5 pts)

It took almost 40 years to prove the fraud. The scientists of the time that the bone was discovered did not have the right equipment to verify the authenticity of the fossil. They assumed that it was the missing link, and jumped to quick conclusions, as humans often do. The ego’s and greed of humans were apparent. The inventions in technology after world war one included the fluorine test.  The staining on the fossil was superficial, which is surprising that scientists didn’t discover this before. I thought that it would be obvious that the teeth had been manipulated, however it fooled even trained professionals. It negatively impacted the scientific process because it proved how easily people could be fooled, as well as how quickly ‘scientific proof’ could be overturned.

3. What positive aspects of the scientific process were responsible for revealing the skull to be a fraud? Be specific about scientific tools, processes or methodologies that were involved in providing accurate information about the Piltdown skull. (5 pts)

Because of the fluorine test that they invented around 1949, they found out it was an Orangutan that dated back less then 100 years ago; not ancient at all. The bones were also determined to have chromic acid stains and iron solution alterations to make them look older. After further analysis it was also proven that the teeth had been filed down, as well as pieces of the jaw bone broken off to resemble that of a human.

4. Is it possible to remove the “human” factor from science to reduce the chance of errors like this happening again? Would you want to remove the human factor from science? (10 pts)

I doubt it’s really probable to take the human factor out of the research. Science answers questions, and humans are the ones that develop these questions. Who would be pursuing science if not for humans? And how would humans remove their faults from their existence? Those can argue perfection and absolute truth, but most of us humans know that such a thing is something to strive for, but is not quite attainable. Rather than removing the human factor from science, maybe encourage the evolution of science to counter the human factor. When in doubt, keep doubting until you can prove beyond the shadow of a doubt that something is true. And even then, there is a possibility it will be proven wrong later. Such is the beauty, and fault, of science.

5. Life Lesson: What lesson can you take from this historical event regarding taking information at face value from unverified sources? (5 pts)

Never take anything as face value when dealing with science. Or even life in general. It is always good to over analyze, as opposed to under-analyze. Even in my life, I am taking my time with schooling, because I don’t want to rush through and realize once I get all of my degrees, that I chose the wrong profession. Take your time and be sure about things, look before you leap.

Comparative Primates

Lemurs are an interesting species whose primary residence is Madagascar. Madagascar is an island located in the Indian Sea, off the southeastern shore of Africa. Lemurs have evolved to cope with the extreme seasonal environments that they live in. Most lemurs enjoy a diet of plants, but are also known to be omnivorous. The locomotive developments of lemurs have a large range. From sloth lemurs, who move in a similar style to the standard sloth, which includes a lot of swinging and suspending; to Indri lemurs and bamboo lemurs, whose locomotive developments are vertical clinging and leaping; to Mesopropithicus lemurs, who exhibited slow loris-like arboreal quadrupedal locomotion; to true and ruffed lemurs, who have a fast arboreal quadrupedal locomotion; to the Lac Alaotra gentle lemur, which has been noticed as a good swimmer. The tropical and island habitats have played a large role in the development of Lemurs. Their climbing abilities, jumping abilities, and even swimming abilities have evolved to best suit the lemurs natural environment.


Spider monkeys naturally reside in South America. The tropical environment and rainforests serve as their home. They can be found in a variety of places, from southern Mexico to Brazil. Spider monkeys are very social creatures, who are rarely found alone. They enjoy habitating in mid to upper areas of trees, and are known to feast upon primarily nuts and fruits. If food is scarce, they may turn to alternate food sources, even insects. Spider monkeys are known to have strictly arboreal lifestyles, spending nearly all of their time above the ground. They have very long, strong, versatile tails which can serve as a fifth hand. The environment of the Spider monkey has encouraged their development of strong climbing limbs, crafty tails, and social nature. Spider monkeys have been seen to avoid travelling on the upper canopy of the trees, most likely because branches thin out near the tops of trees, rendering them unable to support the relatively large sized spider monkey's weight..

Baboons are one of the largest non-hominid members of the primate order. Baboons are terrestrial creatures that can be found in a variety of settings. Open areas such as the savannah, open woodlands, and hills of Africa serve as home to many baboons. They are also known to reside in tall trees, or cliff surfaces. As long as there is a water source nearby, baboons have a rather eclectic choice of habitat. Baboons mainly have a vegeterian diet, but are known to be omnivorous. The locomotion of Baboons is typically quadrupedal. They are known to run on all fours, sometimes only on their toes. The environment has played a role in the development of baboons, just as it does for all primates. Baboons are very strong creatures, with the ability to run, walk, climb, and are known to be much stronger than most animals. 


Gibbons are a variety of ape that reside in tropical and subtropical rainforests in northeast India to Indonesia, to China. Gibbons love trees a little more than most monkeys. They are masters of their primary mode of transportation, brachiation. Brachiation is a form of arboreal locomotion in which primates use only their arms to swing from tree limb to tree limb. Gibbons are kings of the canopy, and spend nearly all of their time in trees. They are a species that is suffering from endangerment. Their environments have encouraged their evolution. They have a wrist that consists of a ball and socket joint, which allows for biaxial movement. It allows for masterful brachiation. 


Chimpanzees have a wide variety of habitats that they reside in. This ranges from grasslands and woodlands, to tropical rainforests and swamp forests; most of which are located in western Africa. They also live in central Africa. Chimpanzees are known to move on all fours (quadrupedal). They walk on the balls of their feet, and the knuckles of their hands. They have the capacity to walk on two legs, in emergencies (bipedal). They are highly capable at climbing and brachiating. Their evolution has been influenced by their environment. Their abilities of climbing and running on all fours are encouraged by their tree-like natural habitats, and grasslands.

The level of influence that the environment has on the expression of physical and behavioral traits that can be seen within these 5 primates is extensive. Many of their physical traits , which include strong arms and hands (and even the ball and wrist joint) that allow for brachiation, versatile tails that can be used for a variety of purposes, longer and stronger hind limbs and forelimbs, for jumping as well as climbing and swinging, thick outer layer to weather the environment, and many other physical traits have evolved and been encouraged to develop in a way that best allows these primates to exist, survive, and thrive in their natural habitats. Although these primates are very similar, their environments have encouraged, and even forced, evolutionary and developmental differences that better suit their needs.  These primates social and behavioral traits are also effected by their environment. Their habitats typically create a social need of dependency. Spider monkeys are rarely seen alone. The social hierarchy of dominance of the baboon is similar to other animals of its environment, such as lions. These primates residence in trees allows them to easily evade their predators. The effect that environment has on the expression of physical and behavioral traits can be seen throughout evolutionary history, and the effect that environment has had on the development and evolution of the locomotion of these 5 primates is very apparent.

Analogy/Homology

a. Briefly describe the two different species that possess the homologus trait.

The skeletal structures of the forelimbs of a bat, and a mouse, exhibit a homologous trait. They both 

developed similar traits from their tetrapod ancestors.

b. Describe the homologous trait of each species, focusing on the differences in structure and

function of the trait.  Why do these homologous traits exhibit differences between the two

species?  Make sure your explanation is clear and complete.

Both bat forelimbs and mouse forelimbs consist of a stylopod, zeugopod, and autopod, which actually look quite similar to a human’s forelimbs (humans, bats, and mice are al mammals, so it makes sense). One major difference in a bat’s forearm is that its’ skeletal limb structure is elongated. Another major difference is the density of a bat’s skeletal limbs. Their bones are especially light, which is necessary for flight. Homologous evolution leaves room for mutation. Through generations of natural selection and evolution, these species’ homologous trait evolved to better suit each individual species.

c. Who was (generally, not specifically) the common ancestor of these two species and how do

you know that ancestor possessed this homologus trait?

The common ancestor of these two species is the ancient tetrapod. Tetrapod’s are vertebrate animals having four limbs. We know that tetrapods are the ancestor of both the mouse and the bat because of the similarities in the evolution, and structures of the mammals, and tetrapods. 

                              

d. Provide an image of each species in this comparison.

  

     Bat                                                    Mouse

a. Briefly describe the two different species that possess the analogous trait. 

Limpets and barnacles have several superficial qualities that are similar. Both can be found in the ocean on rocky shores, and both are small creatures with cone shaped shells. They may look very similar, but the structures of these species are very different. They innards are very different.

b. Describe the analogous trait of each species, focusing on the similarities in structure and

function of the trait.  Clearly explain why these analogous traits exhibit similarities between

the two species. 

The analogous trait exhibited here would be the outer shell. Both species have a hard outer shell. Barnacles innards, however, are more similar to a shrimp; even containing small legs. Limpets bodies, on the other hand, resemble a snail’s body. They both faced similar challenges: rocky environments constantly being eroded by waves, and teeming with predators ready to pry small prey off of the rocks for lunch. The cone shaped armor made it hard for predators to penetrate. These lineages shells evolved independently of eachother.

c. All pairs of organisms share some common ancestor if you go back far enough in time.  Did

the common ancestor of these two species possess this analogous trait?  Why or why not? 

The ancestor of these species would be the bilateria, a worm-like common ancestor. Bilateria, however, have no shell. They didn’t need a shell for survival in their natural environment, the way that limpets and barnacles do.

d. Provide an image of each species in this comparison.

 

 Limpets                                           Barnacles

Protein Synthesis!

A T G T A C C A A G T G A T T C T G T C A G A T C C A T G C G T C T G A A T C G C G

Alfred Russel Wallace

I believe that Alfred Russel Wallace had the largest impact on the development of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection.

Alfred Russel Wallace made a proposal based on his observations in the Malay Archipelago, for the acceptance of a distinction between the range of fauna present in Asia, and the range of fauna present in Australia, which greatly contributed to the scientific foundations of zoogeography. He wrote a paper "On the Zoological Geography of the Malay Archipelago" and presented it at a meeting of the Linnean Society in November of 1859, where he states that the two regions are similar in climactic habitat conditions, but nevertheless feature two distinctly different types of fauna, and went as far as to state that: "Facts such as these can only be explained by a bold acceptance of vast changes in the surface of the Earth." His term was later coined the faunal boundary.
(http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/philosophy/wallace.html)

I believe that the bullet point most similar to Wallace's was "Organisms with better access to resources will be more successful in their reproductive efforts." I say this because Wallace states that "From the effects of disease the most healthy escaped; from enemies, the strongest, the swiftest, or the most cunning; from famine, the best hunters or those with the best digestion". The healthiest escape disease because they have access to resources that keep them healthy. The strongest and swiftest survive, because they have access to resources that allow them to become stronger, or swifter. Wallace's work helped to develop this theory.

Darwin most likely could have developed his work without the help of this person, but his ideas may have been portrayed differently. Wallace mailed his manuscript on his ideas of evolution to Darwin during their studies, and Darwin noticed they had adopted very similar phrases and terminology. According to http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/philosophy/wallace.html, Darwin even sent mail to Charles Lyell stating "I never saw a more striking coincidence. if Wallace had my manuscript sketch written out in 1842 he could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as Heads of my Chapters." Darwin would have still been able to develop his own theories, but perhaps it would have been harder for him.

The attitude of the Church greatly affected Darwin, and the publication of his book "On the Origin of Species." Because his findings brought into question the Biblical account of creation within religious teachings, Darwin was very nervous. At one point he had a 230 page abstract sketch of his theory in 1844, which was labeled 'ONLY TO BE OPENED IN THE EVENT OF MY DEATH." He waited over 20 years after he first came upon the mechanism of evolution, but he was encouraged to move forward when Wallace's manuscript arrived at his front door, and was so similar that they both even used the term "Natural Selection". He received the manuscript in 1858, and finally published The Origin of Species in 1859.